Rates of reaction - concentration Essay Example for Free

Rates of reaction concentration Essay This experiment tests how differing concentrations affect the rate of a chemical reaction. It will be done using a simple experiment where one substance is constant and the other is varying. Apparatus For each experiment I will need the following; 150 cm3 2 Molar hydrochloric acid 140 cm3 water 250 cm3 sodium thiosulphate 1 conical flask 1 measuring cylinder 1 stop clock 5 pieces of paper 1 pen Preliminary Work; Prior to this investigation, I conducted a preliminary experiment to determine the strength of my method in terms of accuracy and precision. I decided to test how the temperature of an experiment affects the rate of reaction. Therefore, I got 50 cm3 sodium thiosulphate and 40cm3 hydrochloric acid diluted with 10cm3 water. After pouring the two mixtures into a conical flask I placed it onto a black cross on a piece of paper and timed the time it took for the precipitate of sulphur produced to make the solution seem so cloudy the cross disappeared. The same experiment was conducted at temperature of 10Â °C, 20Â °C, 30Â °C, 40Â °C and 50Â °C. The two substances that I have chosen for preliminary work will give me an accurate indication of the time taken for the reaction to occur in the actual investigation, as unlike with most experiments, the chemicals produce the precipitate of sulphur which turns the solution a milky yellow colour which is easy to see clearly. From my previous work, I can see that the range of temperatures was enough to give a clear summary of the investigation; therefore, I am transferring the range of temperature to use as amounts of hydrochloric acid as I feel it gives reliable results. Method After retrieving all the apparatus that is needed to successfully complete the experiment, I will begin with drawing a large cross onto the piece of paper. Then I will measure out five different quantities of both water and hydrochloric acid using a measuring cylinder in the following Display complete essay The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Patterns of Behaviour section.

Brief History Of Positive Psychology Psychology Essay

Brief History Of Positive Psychology Psychology Essay The advent of positive psychology as we know it today can be traced back to Martin E. P. Seligmans 1998 Presidential Address to the American Psychological Association (Seligman, 1999). Following a serendipitous holiday meeting between Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi in winter 1997 (Csikszentmihalyi, 2003), and an epiphanic moment when gardening with his daughter Nikki (Seligman Csikszentmihalyi, 2000), Seligman realized that psychology had largely neglected the latter two of its three pre-World War II missions: curing mental illness, helping all people to lead more productive and fulfilling lives, and identifying and nurturing high talent. The advent of the Veterans Administration (in 1946) and the National Institute of Mental Health (in 1947) had largely rendered psychology a healing discipline based upon a disease model and illness ideology (Maddux, 2002; Maddux, Snyder, Lopez, 2004). With this realization, Seligman resolved to use his APA presidency to initiate a shift in psycholo gys focus toward a more positive psychology (Seligman, 1999). Seligmans presidential initiative was catalyzed by a series of meetings in Akumal, Mexico, of scholars who could inform the conceptualization and early development of positive psychology, and the establishment of the Positive Psychology Steering Committee (Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Ed Diener, Kathleen Hall Jamieson, Chris Peterson, and George Vaillant). From this followed the Positive Psychology Network, later to become the Positive Psychology Center at the University of Pennsylvania, the first Positive Psychology Summit in Washington, DC, and a special issue of the American psychologist on positive psychology to mark the new millennium. Further, in the 7 years since Seligmans presidential address, there have been numerous positive psychology books, journal special issues, and the establishment of regional positive psychology networks that span the globe (Seligman, 2005). Now, in 2006, we have the first dedicated positive psychology journal, The Journal of Positive Psychology. These are remarkable achievements for any psychology movement in such a short space of time. Many readers may well be wondering why, and below we offer some thoughts in response to this question. As the leading advocate of positive psychology, Seligman has been exceptionally successful at catalyzing and uniting the efforts of the many distinguished scientists who have become some of the key players in the positive psychology movement. These include the Positive Psychology Steering Committee (Csikszentmihalyi, Diener, Jamieson, Peterson, and Vaillant) and the leaders of numerous positive psychology research centres, research pods, and grant holders (Seligman, 2005). Other notable figures include C. R. (Rick) Snyder, who edited the special issue of the Journal of social and clinical psychology (2000) and the influential Handbook of positive psychology (2002); Chris Peterson, who headed up the Values-in-Action project that led to the VIA classification of strengths and virtues (Peterson Seligman, 2004); and the winners of the prestigious Templeton Positive Psychology Prizes: Barbara Fredrickson (2000) for her work on positive emotions; Jon Haidt (2001) for his work on the posit ive moral emotion of elevation; and Suzanne Segerstrom (2002) for her work on the beneficial effects of optimism on physical health. A further critical factor in the success of many of these initiatives was the financial support that made them possible, provided by such donors as the Templeton Foundation, The Gallup Organization, the Mayerson Foundation, the Annenberg Foundation Trust at Sunnylands, and the Atlantic Philanthropies, among others. And given the research imbalance between psychopathology and disease, relative to human strengths and well-being, positive psychology also offered excellent opportunities for rapid scientific advances, simply because many topics had been largely ignored (Gable Haidt, 2005). Thus, the development of positive psychology was clearly shaped and energized by the considerable efforts of Seligman and the other major players in the field. Their deliberate sociology of science approach, recognizing and building on the structural forces that shape the discipline of psychology, cemented positive psychologys place through bringing in major research funding, providing considerable research leadership, engaging the wider public media, and attracting some of the brightest early career scientists through the provision of training institutes, research collaborations with senior scientists, and funding support for their work. However, it is also eminently clear from a cursory examination of the research literature that positive psychology did not begin in 1997, or 1998, or 1999, or 2000 (McCullough Snyder, 2000). In fact, positive psychology has always been with us, but as a holistic and integrated body of knowledge, it has passed unrecognized and uncelebrated, and one of the major achievements of the positive psychology movement to date has been to consolidate, lift up, and celebrate what we do know about what makes life worth living, as well as carefully delineating the areas where we need to do more. Research into positive psychology topics has gone on for decades, and might even be traced back to the origins of psychology itself, for example, in William James writings on healthy mindedness (James, 1902). In broad terms, positive psychology has common interests with parts of humanistic psychology, and its emphasis on the fully functioning person (Rogers, 1961), and self-actualization and the study of healthy individuals (Maslow, 1968). Indeed, we note that more than 50 years ago, Maslow lamented psychologys preoccupation with disorder and dysfunction: The science of psychology has been far more successful on the negative than on the positive side. It has revealed to us much about mans shortcomings, his illness, his sins, but little about his potentialities, his virtues, his achievable aspirations, or his full psychological height. It is as if psychology has voluntarily restricted itself to only half its rightful jurisdiction, and that, the darker, meaner half (Maslow, 1954, p. 354). Initially at least, positive psychology may not have paid sufficient tribute to its historical antecedents, leading to some criticisms (Taylor, 2001; Tennen Affleck, 2003). However, there is now a growing recognition that positive psychology can learn useful lessons from earlier research and theorizing, and we hope that the animosity that has sometimes characterized previous exchanges will be replaced with increasing respect and collaboration (Joseph Worsley, 2005), not least so that positive psychology can prosper through integration, rather than whither through isolation. WHAT IS POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY? In asking this question, one is faced with the inherent danger that 10 positive psychologists would provide 10 different answers. Should this be taken to suggest that nobody really knows, exactly, what positive psychology is? We would argue that this is actually far from the case, yet equally we have a very real sense that positive psychology might often be interpreted as being all things to all people. Indeed, in the course of numerous presentations to hosts of different audiences, psychologist and non-psychologist, academics and practitioners, we have the consistent experiences of eyes lighting up and people saying Ah, positive psychology, thats what we need. And when we ask what they understand by positive psychology, we receive different answers every time. In this sense, positive psychology is perceived of as a panacea for many modern ills. It is not. But, by providing a different interpretative lens, it offers a different worldview and thereby novel answers to some questions th at have been around for a long time, and shines the light of scientific inquiry into previously dark and neglected corners. Consider, for example, the following definitions of positive psychology, all taken from authoritative positive psychological sources: The field of positive psychology at the subjective level is about valued subjective experiences: well-being, contentment, and satisfaction (in the past); hope and optimism (for the future); and flow and happiness (in the present). At the individual level, it is about positive individual traits: the capacity for love and vocation, courage, interpersonal skill, aesthetic sensibility, perseverance, forgiveness, originality, future mindedness, spirituality, high talent, and wisdom. At the group level, it is about the civic virtues and the institutions that move individuals toward better citizenship: responsibility, nurturance, altruism, civility, moderation, tolerance, and work ethic (Seligman Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). What is positive psychology? It is nothing more than the scientific study of ordinary human strengths and virtues. Positive psychology revisits the average person, with an interest in finding out what works, what is right, and what is improving . . . positive psychology is simply psychology (Sheldon King, 2001). Positive psychology is the study of the conditions and processes that contribute to the flourishing or optimal functioning of people, groups, and institutions (Gable Haidt, 2005). Positive psychology is about scientifically informed perspectives on what makes life worth living. It focuses on aspects of the human condition that lead to happiness, fulfilment, and flourishing (The Journal of Positive Psychology, 2005). There are certainly core themes and consistencies, but also differences in emphasis and interpretation. In thinking about how best to represent positive psychology, and how best to position its understanding in the first issue of The Journal of Positive Psychology, we believe it would be helpful to provide what we see as a definition of positive psychology that identifies and delineates the different things that it might mean to different people. We also specify what positive psychology is not, in the hope that we can lay to rest some of the ghosts of criticism that have haunted positive psychology (sometimes with justification, often with misunderstanding) since its inception. Further, as will become clear later in the article, this definition and understanding of positive psychology helps to inform and develop the potential future pathways and applications of positive psychology that we map out below (Linley et al. 2006). PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING INTRODUCTION Historic Introduction to Positive Psychological Functioning Throughout history, psychologists have offered different descriptions of positive psychological functioning, or well-being, in the context of the different branches of psychology, such as developmental or clinical psychology. From the perspective of developmental psychology, Erikson [1950] presented the concept of a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ healthy personality in the context of Freudian theory. Erikson perceives development of the personality as a process in which each personality factor is related with the others, in such a way that the personality as a whole depends on the correct development of each of its components. In his analysis of the growth process, this author talks about how the components of mental health develop over the following series of sequential stages: a sense of basic trust, a sense of autonomy, a sense of initiative, a sense of industry, a sense of ego identity, geniality, generativity and integrity. During each of these stages a conflict takes place, and the persons development will be more or less healthy, depending on how this conflict is resolved. According to Eriksons vision, development of the ego is a continuous growth process, which progresses, throughout a persons lifespan, towards a superior capacity. This same perspective of continuous growth throughout the lifespan can be found in Bà ¼hlers theory [1935], which speaks of the so-called à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¢curve of life. Buhler concluded that, in spite of individual differences, there is a regular sequence in which events, experiences and achievements appear in peopleslives, and that improvement or deterioration in psychological well-being does not necessarily occur at the same rate as changes in physical well-being. From the perspective of clinical psychology, authors such as Maslow, Allport and Rogers have offered other descriptions of well-being. In his well-known pyramid, Maslow [1958] includes 5 basic needs that a person must fulfill to become fully-functioning. A person begins by satisfying the most basic needs and after fulfilling the first one, then moves on to the next, on the level immediately above. Firstly, the most basic needs for an organism are considered to be physiological ones. These are, undoubtedly, the most important in the pyramid, in that when a person loses everything in life, his strongest desire is to satisfy this type of need. The most important goal in a person without food, love or safety, will most certainly be to find food before anything else. When none of the needs are satisfied and the organism is dominated by physiological requirements, the other needs cease to exist or become less important. In second place, when the physiological needs are satisfied the need for safety takes over. When a person is in this stage, safety becomes more important than anything else, even than the physiological needs that are already covered. Maslows third need concerns the requirement to belong to a group, and for affection and love, which comes into play when the previous two needs have been satisfied. The person is now interested in forming relationships with others and becoming part of a group, and will work hard to achieve this. The person is now more interested in doing this than in anything else and forgets the little importance he attributed to this when he was hungry. Maslows fourth need corresponds to a persons self-esteem. This author considers that everyone (with the exception of some mental illnesses) needs a positive opinion of himself, self-respect and self-esteem and also to be valued by others. These needs can be classified into two sub-groups: on the one hand, a desire for fortitude, achievements, independence and freedom and, on the other hand, a desire to earn a good reputation or prestige, defined as having gained the respect or esteem of others. Finally, we come to the need for self-actualization, defined as a person realizing his full potential, which comes into play when all the other needs are satisfied. According to Maslow à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¢ what a man can be, he must be, and he calls this need, self-actualization. If a person has the talent to do something, he will be unsatisfied or unhappy if he cannot fully develop this part of himself, in other words, a musician must make music and a poet must write poems. This need refers to the desire for a person to develop his full potential, to seek personal growth and to become everything he is capable of being. Clearly, these desires vary greatly from one person to the next. Some people may feel self-fulfilled by becoming top sportsmen, while others will acquire a feeling of self-fulfillment by being good parents. MULTIDIMENSIONAL MODEL OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING In relation to the concept of psychological well-being, Ryff [1989a] proposes a multidimensional model composed of 6 different dimensions: Self-acceptance, Positive relations with others, Autonomy, Environmental mastery, Purpose in life and Personal growth. These 6 dimensions of psychological well-being can be defined as follows: Self-acceptance: This is a key part of well-being and concerns the positive opinion a person has of himself. It does not refer to narcissistic self love or superficial self-esteem, but instead to a constructed self-regard that includes both positive and negative aspects [Ryff and Singer, 2003]. Other authors spoke about this previously, [Jung 1933; Von Franz, 1964] emphasizing that only a fully-individuated person can accept his own failures. The concept of ego integrity introduced by Erikson [1959], also refers to a person coming to terms with his own triumphs and failures in past life. This acceptance of self is constructed with an honest self-assessment; the person is aware of his personal failings and limitations, but has the love to accept and embrace himself as he is. High scores in this factor are indicators of people with a positive attitude, who recognize and accept the multiple aspect of the self, including their good and bad qualities, and can look at the past with positive feelings [Ryff and Keyes, 1995]. Low scores in this factor appear in people who are largely unsatisfied with themselves; they are uncomfortable with what has happened in their past life, are concerned about some of their personal qualities and want to change [Ryff and Keyes, 1995]. Positive relationships with others: These include the fortitude, pleasures and human delights that come from close contact with others, from intimacy and love [Ryff and Singer, 2003]. Theories about the stages of adult development also emphasize close relationships with others (intimacy) and the guidance and care of others (generativity). The importance of having positive relationships with other people is repeatedly emphasized in definitions of psychological well-being [Ryff and Singer, 1996]. High scores appear in people who have warm, satisfactory and trusting relationships with others, who are concerned about the well-being of others and have the capacity to feel empathy, affect and intimacy and understand the give and take in human relationships [Ryff and Keyes, 1995]. Low scores indicate that a person has few close and trusting relationships with other people, finds it difficult to be warm, open and to feel concern for the wellbeing of others. They feel isolated and frustrated with social relationships. These people do not want an important commitment with others [Ryff and Keyes, 1995]. Autonomy: This refers to a persons ability to march to his own drum and to pursue personal convictions and beliefs, even if these go against accepted dogma or conventional wisdom. It also refers to the ability to be alone if necessary and to live autonomously [Ryff and Singer, 2003]. Also, in theories about self-actualization, the self-actualizers are described as functioning autonomously and as being resistant to enculturation. In studies into the concept of a fully functioning person, this person is someone with an internal frame of assessment, who is mainly uninterested in what others think of him, but will evaluate himself according to his own personal standards [Ryff and Singer, 1996]. High scores in this factor show people who are self-determined and independent, capable of resisting social pressure and of acting by regulating their behavior from an internal frame of assessment. These people self-evaluate according to personal standards [Ryff and Keyes, 1995]. Low scores indicate people who are concerned about the expectations of others, they depend on other peoplesjudgments before making important decisions, and their thoughts and actions are influenced by social pressures [Ryff and Keyes, 1995]. Environmental mastery: This is another essential factor in well-being and concerns the challenge of a person mastering the environment around him. This ability requires the skills of creating and sustaining environments that are beneficial to a person [Ryff and Singer, 2003]. The ability of an individual to choose or to create environments appropriate for his mental state is defined as a characteristic of mental health. According to life-span developmental theories, for a person to adequately master his environment, he needs the ability to manage and to control complex surroundings, emphasizing from this perspective the need to move forwards in the world and to change it creatively with physical and mental activities [Ryff and Singer, 1996]. High scores in this factor are obtained by people with a sense of mastery and competence of their surroundings, who can make effective use of opportunities that arise and can choose or create contexts appropriate for their needs and personal values [Ryff and Keyes, 1995]. Low scores indicate a difficulty in managing daily affairs, or changing or improving their environment and making the most of opportunities that arise, and a lack of control about the world around them [Ryff and Keyes, 1995]. Purpose in life: This is a persons ability to find a meaning and a direction in his own experiences, and to propose and set goals in his life [Ryff and Singer, 2003]. The definition of maturity also clearly emphasizes an understanding of the purpose of life and the presence of a sense of direction and intentionality. A positively functioning person has goals, intentions and a sense of direction, and all of this helps to give a meaning to life [Ryff and Singer, 1996]. High scores in this factor appear in people who have goals in life and a sense of direction; they feel that both the past and the present of their lives has a meaning, they hold beliefs that give their lives a purpose and have goals and reasons to live [Ryff and Keyes, 1995]. Low scores appear in people who feel their life has no meaning and have no goals or sense of direction; they cant see any point in their past experiences [Ryff and Keyes, 1995]. Personal growth: This factor concerns a persons ability to realize his own potential and talent and to develop new resources. It also frequently involves encounters with adversity that require one to dig deeply to find ones inner strength [Ryff and Singer, 2003]. It is associated with being open to new experiences, which is a key characteristic of the fully functioning person. Life-span theories also explicitly emphasize the importance of continuing to grow and to tackle new tasks or challenges in the different stages of ones life [Ryff and Singer, 1996]. High scores indicate people who want to continue to develop. They regard themselves as growing and expanding, are open to new experiences, feel they are fulfilling their potential, they can see improvements in the self and in their behavior over time, and change towards ways that improve their self-knowledge and effectiveness [Ryff and Keyes, 1995]. Low scores appear in people with a sense of personal stagnation, with no improvement or growth over a period of time, they feel bored and lack interest in life. They feel incapable of developing new attitudes or behaviors [Ryff and Keyes, 1995]. This model was studied in a representative sample of 1108 adults over 25 years old. In the confirmatory analysis of the factors, it was found that the results supported the multidimensional model proposed, and was the model which best fitted the six factors combined together to form a factor of higher order, called psychological well-being [Ryff and Keyes, 1995]. In this same study, it was found that the factors self-acceptance and environmental mastery were highly correlated, so it was proposed to combine these factors to obtain a model with 5 factors. In any case, the authors concluded that well-being is more than simply feeling happy or satisfied with life; nor is it merely an absence of negative emotions or experiences which define the well-lived. Instead it entails having a rich perception of these experiences and successfully managing the challenges and difficulties that may arise [Ryff and Singer, 2003]. MEASURES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING Bradburn Affect Balance Scale One of the first scales that could be used to measure psychological well-being, which later served as a reference to validate subsequent scales is the BABS (Bradburn Affect Balance Scale) [Bradburn, 1969]. This is a ten-item scale divided into two subscales, one that evaluates positive affect and the other that evaluates negative affect. Each of these subscales has 5 items. These items refer to pleasant or unpleasant experiences over the past few weeks which are intentionally treated with a degree of ambiguity [Bartlett and Coles, 1998]. The score is obtained by adding one point for every yes answer and summarizing separately the responses to the positive and negative subscales, respectively. After this, the difference between the scores is calculated and a constant is added to eliminate possible negative results. The test-retest reliability was evaluated by Bradburn [1969], and in a sample of 200 people with an interval of 3 days the reliability calculated for positive affect, negative affect and the affect balance were 0.83, 0.81 and 0.76, respectively. The Short Form 36 The Short Form 36 (SF-36) was developed to measure the services provided by different health departments in the United States [Ware, Snow, Kosinski et al. 1993]. It is a self-administered scale comprised of 8 different subscales that contain Likert-type items. The 8 different concepts are each evaluated by their own scale: Physical functioning. Role limitations because of physical health problems. Bodily pain. Social functioning. General mental health (psychological distress and psychological well-being). Role limitations because of emotional problems. Vitality (energy/fatigue). General health perceptions. Both the General mental health and the Vitality subscales have psychological implications. The authors of the SF-36 scale understand mental health (measured by the General mental health scale) as part of a construct of psychological well-being with a positive pole and another negative pole [Bartlett and Coles, 1998]. This scale has received some criticism, such as that from Hunt and McKenna [1993] who question the design of the scale, both in the selection of its items and also its objective. For example, Hunt asks how many British people could answer the question à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¢Does your health limit you in your ability to do vigorous activities, such as sports, running, lifting heavy objects? when most of them dont even do this kind of activity. Hunt uses another example with the question Does your health limit you in your ability to walk a mile?. He considers this question is complicated with the factor of necessity. He explains that some people wont walk a mile even if they are in good health, while others, from necessity, because they live in the outskirts or for other reasons, will walk the mile in spite of having poor health. McHorney, Ware and Razcek [1993] provided evidence to support the validity of SF-36, showing that the mental health scale can discriminate between groups by using the mean scores. A group with minor medical conditions has a mean score of 83, a group with a serious medical condition would have a mean score of 78 and a group with a serious medical condition with psychiatric comorbidity would obtain a mean score of around 53. Satisfaction with Life Scale (Swls) This is a self-administered scale with 5 items relating to level of satisfaction with life. The possible responses are 1 to 7, where 1 indicates that the person strongly disagrees with the statement and 7 that they strongly agree [Diener, Emmons, Sem et al. 1985]. The score is the total of the responses to these 5 items and can be used to classify the person into one of the following categories: 30-35: extremely satisfied, well above average. 25-29: very satisfied, above average. 20-24: quite satisfied, average for adult United States citizens. 15-19: slightly dissatisfied, a little less than average. 10-14: dissatisfied, clearly below the average. 5-9: extremely dissatisfied, far below the average. The test-retest correlation was carried out with 2 months difference and gave a result of 0.82. The alpha coefficient of the scale is 0.87 [Diener, Emmons, Sem et al. 1985]. This is a scale to measure subjective well-being and in its original validation the authors calculate the correlation existing between SWLS and other scales to measure subjective wellbeing, including the Bradburn scale (BABS) described previously. The coefficient of correlation for Bradburns positive affect subscale is 0.5 and that for the negative affect subscale is -0.37. Psychological General Well-Being Index Short (PGWB-S) The PGWBI scale is a 22-item scale that evaluates self-perceived psychological wellbeing, each item is evaluated on a 6 point scale. The scale assesses 6 dimensions of quality of life relating to health: anxiety, depression, positive well-being, self-control, general health and vitality [Grossi, Groth, Mosconi et al. 2006]. There is a considerable amount of information about the original scale since it was used widely in studies in the United States and worldwide, and has been translated and validated in several languages, for example to Spanish by Badia, Gutierrez, Wiklund et al. [1996]. The short version of the PGWBI aims to reduce the number of items but to maintain the validity and reliability of the scale. In its final version, the PGWB-S has only 6 items that reflect 5 of the 6 items assessed in the original version (except for general health) and reproduces 90% of the variation in the result of the PGWBI. The high Cronbach alpha value (between 0.8 and 0.92) indicates a good reliability when compared with the original scale. Psychological Well-Being Scales (PGWB) One of the most widely used scales to measure psychological well-being is Ryffs scale [1989a]. This scale breaks down the construct into 6 different dimensions [Ryff, 1989b] that are analyzed separately, each with their own subscale. The dimensions analyzed are: Self-acceptance, Positive relations with others, Autonomy, Environmental mastery, Purpose in life and Personal growth. Each of these subscales has 20 likert-type items in which the patient self-assesses himself by choosing from the six possible responses, from strongly agree to strongly disagree. This test has high test-retest reliability and a high internal consistency. Moreover, its convergent and discriminate validity with other measures have also been studied. The test-retest coefficients per subscale (with a retest of 6 weeks) were self-acceptance 0.85, relations with others 0.83, autonomy 0.88, environmental mastery 0.81, purpose in life 0.82 and personal growth 0.81. The alpha coefficients for the subscales were: self-acceptance 0.93, relations with others 0.91, autonomy 0.86, environmental mastery 0.90, purpose in life 0.90 and personal growth 0.87. Ryffs article gives an in-depth explanation of convergent validity [1989a]. Here, we indicate the convergent validity values for the different dimensions with Bradburns Affect Balance Scale: self-acceptance 0.55, relations with others 0.30, autonomy 0.36, environmental mastery 0.62, purpose in life 0.42 and personal growth 0.25. The fact that this covers 6 scales (120 items), combined with its good psychometric qualities have given rise to the development of shorter versions, which still maintain good fits and consistency. These versions include the one by Van Dierendonck [2004] which, with only 39 items, obtains a goodness of fit indicator (GFI) of 0.88 and Cronbachs alpha between 0.84 and 0.70 (depending on the subscale). CONCLUSION Overall, Positive Psychologys goal, as by Seligman (2002), is to develop the individual strengths of our young people so they may realize their personal potential and fulfill the second goal, that of creating a thriving community of civically responsible and productive members. Psychological well-being has been reviewed immensely. Moreover, the take-home message is that positive emotions are worth cultivatin

Symbolism in Lord of the Flies, by William Golding Essay -- essays res

Symbolism in Lord of the Flies, by William Golding In his classic novel, Lord of the Flies, William Golding uses many elements of symbolism to help the readers gain a greater understanding of his message. Symbolism can be anything, a person, place, or thing, used to portray something beyond its self. It is used to represent or foreshadow the conclusion of the story. As one reads this novel, he or she will begin to recognize the way basic civilization is slowly stripped away from the boys as conflict between civilization and savagery arises. The conch shell represents power and authority. Whoever has the shell has the power to talk. The conch shows how people use objects to give power, like a crown. "Conch?" "That's what this shell's called. I'll give the conch to the next person to speak. He can hold it when he's speaking (pg.33)." This shows that whoever holds the conch during meetings gets to speak At these meetings a sense of order is instilled because the boys have to wait until they hold the conch to speak. The conch becomes a powerful symbol of civilization. "By the time Ralph had finished blowing the conch the platform was crowded." (Golding, 32) Ralph shows his leadership abilities as he recognizes the use of the conch. Ralph begins to take leadership over the boys by setting rules as using the conch to let everyone have a turn to speak. Another symbol of strength and command is the fire. As long as the fire is well maintained, the b...

A Critical Study of Media Reaction to September 11 Essay example -- Se

September 11, 2001: A DAY OF INFAMY.  Ã‚   So it was vehemently proclaimed in Time Magazine ¹s special issue dedicated to one of the most tragic events in American History and arguably one of the most brutal acts of terrorism to date.   America, in the spasms of a few hours, has become a changed country.   Perhaps in an attempt to understand this change and come to grips with the ensuing crisis, more and more people are turning to the media for answers.   Now more than ever, the media, namely television, radio, newspapers, and the internet, have become the most powerful tools in disseminating information relevant to this event.   This is a truth we cannot escape.     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   It would of course be naà ¯ve to say that this information is always reliable and accurate.   Beneath the surface there may be underlying messages which can serve to manipulate the public.   We as individuals need to be aware of this reality.   We need to be discerning with the information we take in, be able to critically analyze it, and eventually make intelligent and informed judgements.   Hence, to do a critical study of media culture with reference to the events transpiring after the September 11 attack, we need Cultural Studies.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Cultural Studies gives us the methods for analyzing the media.   It gives us the pedagogical tools necessary to critically interpret the media.   It enables us to read cultural text  ³against the grain ² by deconstructing it.   In other words, it allows us to decode the encoded messages.   An example of an encoded message could be the ubiquitous NBC Peacock icon which has changed its rainbow colored wings to red, white and blue.   Prior to this change, the constant presence of the logo at the bottom of the screen had made it almost invisible  ... ...ake a quick buck ² by flaunting the flag on everything from a pin to clothing to various other patriotic paraphernalia.   In many such cases the flag serves as a spectacle.   Many billboards across town are an entire picture of the flag with no caption, thus creating a polysemic visual image evoking endless emotions and feelings in the viewer.     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   From a cultural studies point of view, if one is to derive a  ³lesson ² from all of this, it would be that we need to be educated in media literacy so that we can discern and discriminate between good media and bad.   We should not be so naà ¯ve as to blindly accept the subliminal or even sometimes overt messages conveyed through media.   Instead, we need to critically decipher media messages and understand their overwhelming impact on our culture.   Only then will we be empowered to make intelligent and informed judgements.

Hunger Essay -- World Hunger Poverty Food Essays

Hunger Hunger is an issue which many people think lies little importance. Im going to give you a look at World Hunger as a Picture of Poverty, how it affects Third World Nations, and How World Hunger is a disease that is plaguing our society. "Food is more than a trade commodity," pleaded Sir John Boydorr in 1946. "It is an essential to life." The first director-general of the new Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Boydorr fruitlessly proposed plans for a World Food Board to protect nations and people from hunger in the world market system. That market system does not distribute food on the basis of nutritional need. This is one of the most troubling and complex realities of the world hunger problem. During recent famines in Ethiopia, in another example of the workings of the marketplace, foreign food aid begins trucked to famine areas from ships at the docks passed food leaving the famine areas on other vehicles. Merchants were taking food from famine areas to parts of the country where there was no famine. World Hunger and poverty can be seen in many ways. But first lets establish a solid definition of poverty : Poverty is a state in which the ability of individuals or groups to use power to bring about good for themselves, their families, and their community is weakened or blocked. When someone lacks food, this is referred to as material poverty. This sort of poverty can hurt people in many ways, it can hurts people's self esteem and it can also hurt their outlook on life. Lets say you come home from work to see your family, instead of seeing a family which is happy because it has a roof over its head you come home to see that your children don't have enough food on the table to keep them properly nourished. This hurts familys and tears some of them apart. It is also just a very cruel punishment because after a while of being hungry, you start to starve to death and when you starve, the body just starts to eat itself up to find the nourishment it needs. It can also effect people's outlook on life and on people in a major way. People who are denied food can start to hate life and everyone around them. There's also two instincts in life that will always kick in when your hungr y: The survival instinct which is to survive no matter what the situation is and the instinct to provide food for your family. I am not a father myself, ... ...itary force and start trying to live like Jesus would want us to and help our fellow brothers in Christ. Due to many self-centered greedy people, we have fellow humans starving to death. This can't keep going on because every time someone starves, we are not just hurting that person but we are also hurting ourselves. We all live in the world as one race with different sections. The sections being the different nationalities we have in the world. And whenever one division gets hurt, the whole gets weakened. We need to depend on each other to survive from day to day healthy. It is true the poverty is a main cause of world hunger but it isn't the only cause. If the economy was serving the people and not the other way around then more people would have the money needed to buy food to live from day to day. And if greedy governments gave some of he people money or food they would have money to buy food. If the Military stopped using so much money to make machines that kill, there would be more money for people to buy food with. And if more people cared there would be a lot less starving peopl e in this world. If this hunger doesn't end, I can see a very pathetic world in our future. Hunger Essay -- World Hunger Poverty Food Essays Hunger Hunger is an issue which many people think lies little importance. Im going to give you a look at World Hunger as a Picture of Poverty, how it affects Third World Nations, and How World Hunger is a disease that is plaguing our society. "Food is more than a trade commodity," pleaded Sir John Boydorr in 1946. "It is an essential to life." The first director-general of the new Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Boydorr fruitlessly proposed plans for a World Food Board to protect nations and people from hunger in the world market system. That market system does not distribute food on the basis of nutritional need. This is one of the most troubling and complex realities of the world hunger problem. During recent famines in Ethiopia, in another example of the workings of the marketplace, foreign food aid begins trucked to famine areas from ships at the docks passed food leaving the famine areas on other vehicles. Merchants were taking food from famine areas to parts of the country where there was no famine. World Hunger and poverty can be seen in many ways. But first lets establish a solid definition of poverty : Poverty is a state in which the ability of individuals or groups to use power to bring about good for themselves, their families, and their community is weakened or blocked. When someone lacks food, this is referred to as material poverty. This sort of poverty can hurt people in many ways, it can hurts people's self esteem and it can also hurt their outlook on life. Lets say you come home from work to see your family, instead of seeing a family which is happy because it has a roof over its head you come home to see that your children don't have enough food on the table to keep them properly nourished. This hurts familys and tears some of them apart. It is also just a very cruel punishment because after a while of being hungry, you start to starve to death and when you starve, the body just starts to eat itself up to find the nourishment it needs. It can also effect people's outlook on life and on people in a major way. People who are denied food can start to hate life and everyone around them. There's also two instincts in life that will always kick in when your hungr y: The survival instinct which is to survive no matter what the situation is and the instinct to provide food for your family. I am not a father myself, ... ...itary force and start trying to live like Jesus would want us to and help our fellow brothers in Christ. Due to many self-centered greedy people, we have fellow humans starving to death. This can't keep going on because every time someone starves, we are not just hurting that person but we are also hurting ourselves. We all live in the world as one race with different sections. The sections being the different nationalities we have in the world. And whenever one division gets hurt, the whole gets weakened. We need to depend on each other to survive from day to day healthy. It is true the poverty is a main cause of world hunger but it isn't the only cause. If the economy was serving the people and not the other way around then more people would have the money needed to buy food to live from day to day. And if greedy governments gave some of he people money or food they would have money to buy food. If the Military stopped using so much money to make machines that kill, there would be more money for people to buy food with. And if more people cared there would be a lot less starving peopl e in this world. If this hunger doesn't end, I can see a very pathetic world in our future.

BCG Matrix and the Product Life Cycle Essay

Introduction: The BCG Matrix and the Product Life Cycle are two important tools that relate to different aspects of a product’s performance: †¢The BCG looks at market share and market growth and how they impact on cash usage and generation. †¢The PLC looks at sales/revenues over time and levels of profitability. Boston Consulting Group (BCG) Matrix Businesses must keep their product offerings relevant and profitable to stay in operation. The Boston Consulting Group developed a tool, called the BCG matrix, for categorizing a firm’s products in relation to the overall product life cycle. Product life cycle is based on the observation that products develop, similar to animals, through distinct phases of maturity that differ in amount of resources required and produced. The BCG matrix places each product a company offers according to the growth rate of the business and the relative market share the product controls. Identifying which quadrant of the BCG matrix a product offering falls into provides valuable guidance to management about the future of that product Stars Products that enjoy a high relative position in terms of market share in a growing market are referred to as stars. They require large investments to maintain the market share, but often produce enough revenue to cover their expenses. Firms should make it a top priority to maintain the market share of products in the star quadrant of the BCG matrix to increase sales. As the product enters maturity, and growth rates decline below 10 percent, maintaining market share will require less investment, yet produce similar revenue, and become cash cows. Cash Cows Cash cows produce substantial profits for their companies because they require little investment to maintain their high share of the market. Managers should divert profits from cash cows to help defend market share of star products, develop new products for emerging markets, or turn struggling products around. While cash cows often provide the largest profit margin in a company portfolio, firms interested in maintaining long-term profitability must invest in defending and creating star products that will become cash cows` Low market-share products that show low growth are referred to as  dogs. Managers should minimize the number of dogs in the product portfolio. While many managers seek the challenge of trying to turn a dog product around, additional scrutiny should be given to any investment in dog products. Firms should decide whether to find a niche in the product’s market to control or divest from the product entirely to free up resources for more profitable ventures. Question Marks The most troubling quadrant on the BCG matrix is filled with products in high-growth markets that control relatively weak positions within their markets. These products, called question marks, require large investments to develop. Even with substantial funding, a question mark product is at a disadvantage due to the fierce competition in high-growth markets. Managers should consider the likelihood and means of increasing market share, such as specializing in a niche market, before allocating additional resources to question marks. If a question mark is unlikely to capture a niche market or stand out against the better established competition, the firm should divest to increase its overall profitability Some limitations of the BCG matrix model include: †¢The first problem can be how we define market and how we get data about market share †¢A high market share does not necessarily lead to profitability at all times †¢The model employs only two dimensions – market share and product or service growth rate †¢Low share or niche businesses can be profitable too (some Dogs can be more profitable than cash Cows) †¢The model does not reflect growth rates of the overall market †¢The model neglects the effects of synergy between business units †¢Market growth is not the only indicator for attractiveness of a market There are probably even more aspects that need to be considered in a particular use of the BCG model Product Life Cycle (plc) The product life cycle has 4 very clearly defined stages, each with its own characteristics that mean different things for business that are trying to manage the life cycle of their particular products. Introduction Stage – This stage of the cycle could be the most expensive for a company launching a new product. The size of the market for the product is small, which means  sales are low, although they will be increasing. On the other hand, the cost of things like research and development, consumer testing, and the marketing needed to launch the product can be very high, especially if it’s a competitive sector. Growth Stage – The growth stage is typically characterized by a strong growth in sales and profits, and because the company can start to benefit from economies of scale in production, the profit margins, as well as the overall amount of profit, will increase. This makes it possible for businesses to invest more money in the promotional activity to maximize the potential of this growth stage. Maturity Stage – During the maturity stage, the product is established and the aim for the manufacturer is now to maintain the market share they have built up. This is probably the most competitive time for most products and businesses need to invest wisely in any marketing they undertake. They also need to consider any product modifications or improvements to the production process which might give them a competitive advantage. Decline Stage – Eventually, the market for a product will start to shrink, and this is what’s known as the decline stage. This shrinkage could be due to the market becoming saturated (i.e. all the customers who will buy the product have already purchased it), or because the consumers are switching to a different type of product. While this decline may be inevitable, it may still be possible for companies t o make some profit by switching to less-expensive production methods and cheaper markets The relationship between the BCG Matrix and the product life cycle The horizontal axis of the BCG Matrix represents market Shareand the vertical axis indicates anticipated market growth. The corporate business is divided into four categoriesthey are cash cows, stars, question marks, dogs. The product life cycle is a new product progresses through a sequence of stages from introduction to grow, maturity, and decline. The four categories of corporate business correspond to the four stages of the product life cycle (1) Question marks businesses correspond to the introduction stage of the product life cycle. Question marks businesses are in an attractive industry but hold a small market share percentage. In the introduction stage the firm seeks to build market share rapidly build product awareness and develop a market for the product. (2) Starts businesses correspond to the growth  stage of the product life cycle. Start businesses are in a fast-growing market, and hold a dominant share of that market. Their contribution to cash flow depends on their need for resources. In the growth stage, the firm seeks to build brand preference and increase market share. Market share tends to stabilize. (3) Cash cows businesses correspond to the maturity stage of the product life cycle. Cash cows businesses in this generate large amounts of cash but their prospects for future growth are limited In the maturity stage, the market reaches saturation. The primary objective is to defend market share while maximizing profit. (4) Dogs businesses in this category do not producer consumer much cash. However they hold no promise for improved performance. In decline stage there is a downturn in the market as sales decline discontinue the product liquidating remaining inventory or sell off. The difference between the BCG Matrix and the product life cycle †¢The corporate business is divided into four categories from two aspects of market share and anticipated growth rate however the product life cycle is divided into four stages from two aspects of sales and time. †¢The BCG Matrix can roughly judge enterprise’s overall operating conditions but the product life cycle only reflects the market performance of a single product. †¢The BCG matrix mainly studies the allocation and use of corporate resources, but the product life cycle mainly studies the use of the product marketing strategy. †¢ The BCG matrix can reflects corporate a variety of different business conditions, but the product life cycle can not reflects all businesses and product in the curve

“Not So Quiet” as representative of gender in WWII Essay

Evadne Price wrote the book â€Å"Not So Quiet† in 1930 under the pseudonym Helen Zenna Smith. Price was an established author and playwright by the time she wrote â€Å"Not So Quiet,† best known for her serialized romance novels. She also wrote children’s books and articles for women’s magazine. But â€Å"Not So Quiet† was a very different kind of piece, partly because of its far more serious nature, partly because it was somewhat autobiographical. She was initially approached by a British publisher to write a satire on â€Å"All Quiet on the Western Front† by Erich Maria Remarque, but Price argued that she would rather write an account of a woman’s experience with war instead. Price then contacted a British ambulance driver who had kept war diaries as a basis for her story, then elaborating the story to revolve around a fictional version of herself named Smithie. Taking this very personal, intimate story of a woman, as well as her already inherent skill of writing for women, Price created a novel whose voice is distinctly female. The reader feels Smithie’s confusion, anger and isolation in her struggle to build a new identity in the wake of a total loss of innocence. In this, more then anything, Price has created a war story that is not only about women, but one that speaks to women and resonates with them, a true rarity. It is through Price’s novel that a distinct view of the war through the eyes of a very female, upper-class experience help give the reader a very clear idea of many of the issues faced by women of the war years as they try to maintain what society has always told them is feminine behavior in an increasingly bloody reality. The nature of the book â€Å"Not So Quiet† is reflective of â€Å"All Quiet on the Western Front† in that both are pacifist responses to war, but in the case of â€Å"Not So Quiet,† the pacifist voice is female. The ideas about war expressed by Smithie are often reminiscent of other pacifist women’s responses to war and draw attention to the women’s peace movement that started during the First World War. Many of Smithie’s comments, such as her sarcastic annoyance with Mrs. Evans-Mawning for being proud that she could be proud her son was murdered for murdering another mother’s son, is phrased very similarly to thoughts of leading female pacifists. Clara Zetkin, a German socialist feminist, is one who comes to mind and her words â€Å"Who endangers the well-being of the fatherland? Is it the men who, clad in other uniforms, stand beyond the frontier, men who did not want this war any more  than your men did and who do not know why th ey should have to murder their brothers?† (Zetkin, pg. 145). Zetkin’s radical ideas, formed during the first war, are a display of the already changing disposition, pushing to action for the cause of peace. Lida Gustava Heymann, another female pacifist during World War I, reflects another aspect of Smithie’s pacifist transformation-anger. Like Smithie, who spends much of the novel searching for people to blame for her pain, Heymann puts blame directly on men, describing male nature as inherently violent and fundamentally opposed to female nature, which is pacifist. Another important pacifist during World War I who is reminiscent of Smithie is Sylvia Pankhurst, daughter of Emmeline Pankhurst, organizer of radical women’s groups, and Richard Pankhurst. Her radicalism led to a major rift with her mother after the groups they belonged to decided not to commit arson, which, to Sylvia, made them not radical enough. She also felt her mother and her sisters were to focused of fostering middle class privilege and gave to little attention to the needs of all women. During the war, when she joined the women’s peace army, she found herself at even greater rift with her mother and sister, who both supported the war. Her lifetime of feelings of anger and alienation from the older generation, despite her mother’s staunchly liberal ideas, manifest Smithie’s exact feelings that pushed her toward the distaste for the war that the novel ends on. Smithie’s anger and large transformation are a result of her unmasked experience with war. For most women, however, the experience of war was masked and covered behind nationalism and propaganda. Although much of the book takes place on the front, hints of what is happening back home are frequently given, mostly through letters received by Smithie from her mother and through the character of B.F. Mrs. Evans-Mawning, throughout the novel, serves as a figure of the worst kind of feminine nationalism, boasting about Roy but not having the edge on Smithie’s mother because she has only her one son to sacrifice as opposed to Smithie’s larger family. Smithie also notes that she is sick of reading positive news about wonder war girls in the news, comparing her experience to having a baby because once you get started â€Å"your trapped in it.† (Smith, pg. 134). Women on the home front were being coddled into believing everything was going well because this was still a  time in which men saw women as more sensitive then they were intelligent and therefore needed to be protected (Thebaud, pg. 95). This sort of â€Å"sugar-coating† gave women false impressions about the war, which was particularly disappointing to those who enlisted. In one letter from Smithie’s younger sister, Trix, she writes â€Å"Why the dickens they dress you up in a pretty cap and make you think you’re going to smooth the patients fevered brow beats me hollow.† (Smith, pg. 84). Another letter in the book that is very reflective of home front feelings is the one Smithie receives from B.F, who described her encounter with Tosh’s uncle and comments on his lack of patriotism because of his being more upset about Tosh’s death then the war. In her own, somewhat ignorant, way B.F is describing the shifting attitudes felt by people bac k home whose nationalism faded with sorrow over lost loved ones. While this war marked an incredible change in society in a variety of areas, no group was more changed by the two wars then women were. Women, even those who were educated and â€Å"gently bred† were called in to be a part of a gruesome war and through the experience of Smithie the loss of innocence is felt. Heymann, after the First World War, noted that everything in the past is in a state of man, which makes force, authority and fear its principles. Heymann felt that women had so long been slaves to men that presently their very natures were enslaved (Heymann, pg. 149). However, war forced women into very different position then they had ever been in before, the wars forced them to take a more aggressive role in public life and start to reclaim their own identities. Zetkin also notes during the war how the existence of it threw in women’s faces the view of society that men need to go die in order to protect their â€Å"weak women,† but the death of their men ca used a much larger burden to fall upon their apparently small shoulders. The change experienced by women is manifested not just in Smithie and other named characters, but also in the two most notable events that involve girls just â€Å"passing through† the ambulance-driving world. The first, in which Smithie shows two new girls to their bunk and they tell her they shall â€Å"have a tea,† represents the old woman- even faced with clearly dire circumstances, the female is to sensitive for it and buries her head in frivolous desire. However, later on, on page 132, when the ‘seeing-Francer’  stands up to explain why she is leaving, she not only well articulates her complaint, but also shows a lot of bravery in doing so. The moment displays women’s changing levels of aggression as more and more of them took jobs they never would have before. There are also signs of the sexual emancipation experienced by many women, most clearly manifested by Smithie when she actually says aloud how not shocked she is by the general’s proposition of sex (Smith, pg. 145) and then when she sleeps with a soldier, Robin, whom she barely knows. This was directly following the interwar years, in which novelists and magazines already began to prominently feature the new woman, with her short hair and sexual liberation. While there were many positive changes for the overall position of women as a result of the war, the novel â€Å"Not So Quiet† also notes the physical trauma it brought for them. This aspect of the book might be its finest one in that it describes difficulties faced by women, who were not regarded with the same sensitivity as returning soldiers. After Smithie returns home for a few days, clearly traumatized, she is chastised by her mother for â€Å"mooning about† for days and how strange it was that she was still not over her traumatic experience with war. Ernst Simmel, who wrote about war as a cause of mental illness, described â€Å"war psychosis† as rarely curable, caused by all things to horrible to grasp. Simmel also described war psychosis as a damage that can be seen even when all external wounds are healed, making it therefore invisible. The feelings of this illness’ onset is manifested by Smithie in the most beautiful passage of the book when she describes her desire for â€Å"men who are whole† and her concern for what is to happen like people like her, if they survive, how they are meant to lead a normal life after experiencing such horrific things and being so internally broken. Bibliography Herminghouse, Patricia A., and Magda Meuller, eds. German Feminist Writings. Vol. 95. New York: The German Library, 2001. Simmel, Ernst. â€Å"War Neurosis and â€Å"Psychic Trauma†Ã¢â‚¬  The Legacy of the War. Smith, Helen Z. Not So Quiet†¦ New York: The Feminist P, 1930. Sohn, Anne-Marie. â€Å"Between the Wars in France and England.† A History of Women in the West, Volume V Toward a Cultural Identity in the Twentieth Century (History of Women in the West). By Georges Duby. Vol. 5. New York: Belknap P, 1994. 92-119.